The Founding of New Paltz - The Historical Background

Setting the Stage - The Renaissance

Following the downfall of Rome in the 5th century, Europe entered a period known variously as the Medieval Period, the Middle Ages or the Dark Ages. During this period, the cultured societies of the ancient Classical civilizations ceased to exist and in their place developed a highly-fractured political organization of local feudal lords who served as protectors, landlords and employers of communities of peasants who farmed the land surrounding the castle of the lord. The Roman Catholic Church was the only unifying force in Europe, and it was a major force in the lives of most people. While the knowledge developed during the Classical period was studied and preserved in church institutions, literacy and education were virtually nonexistent in the wider world.

The 14th century saw a "rebirth," or in French, renaissance, of the search for knowledge, both philosophic and scientific, and scholars and other educated people learned the ancient languages and looked for truth in old texts, while simultaneously expanding upon this knowledge through their own inquiry. The use of moveable type for printing books was made practical through the efforts of Johann Gutenberg in the 15th century, and through this, books, particularly the Bible, were made available to a wider audience. Although possession of books and literacy was still beyond the means of the common man, through changes in the political and economic structure of Europe, a middle class developed which had the resources and desire to seek education and join in the search for knowledge.

One of the principle beliefs or perspectives that developed in the Renaissance was the concept of the individual. No longer was it believed that a person was thoroughly reliant for his livelihood on a feudal lord nor was he dependent upon the Church for understanding of this world and the next -- an individual was capable of seeking out knowledge on his own and altering his financial situation and position in society. This change in perspective rattled the foundations of society, resulting in one of the most dramatic upheavals in the history of humankind - the Reformation.

Redefining Religion -- The Reformation

With the rise in literacy in Classical as well as vernacular languages, came the study of the Old Testament in the original Hebrew and the New Testament in Greek. Coupled with the belief that the individual could read and analyze on his or her own, there were those who began to question Church practice and doctrine, aspects of which were considered to be non-Biblical and therefore invalid. The supremacy of the Pope, the selling of indulgences for the remission of sins, worship of saints and the Virgin Mary as opposed to reliance on Christ, salvation based only on good works, ritual-based services, and in general the reliance on a church hierarchy for salvation were all suspect. Additionally, the piety of many church leaders was questioned, as they were seen as both worldly and vice-laden and more concerned with maintaining power than the true spiritual growth of church members.

This perspective began to have currency among the people, resulting in the formation of alternative religious establishments, under the leadership of Martin Luther. In the early 16th century, he began publicly to question the Roman Church on these and other matters, and others followed. His following was enhanced through his translation of the Bible into German, opening it up to study to a much larger audience. In France, this movement was taken up by Jean Cauvin, otherwise known as John Calvin, in the 1520s and 30s, and through his efforts, he laid the groundwork for the Reformed, Congregational and Presbyterian denominations. In France, the followers of Calvin were known as Huguenots. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the origin of the name is uncertain, but it appears to have come from the word aignos, derived from the German Eidgenossen (confederates bound together by oath), which used to describe, between 1520 and 1524, the patriots of Geneva hostile to the duke of Savoy. The spelling Huguenot may have been influenced by the personal name Hugues, "Hugh"; a leader of the Geneva movement was one BesanÁon Hugues (d. 1532).

New Perspectives -- Calvinism

Martin Luther believed that it was not through the actions of an individual but through his or her faith that salvation is achieved, a principle known as justification by faith. Calvin took this one step further in his belief that there was nothing an individual could do to achieve this salvation, as it was predetermined, or predestined. The Puritans of England, also followers of Calvin, fixated on this concept, especially some of those who eventually migrated to New England, although the French Protestants were never quite as concerned about this principle. Calvin also advocated a pious, devout lifestyle and hard work, although once again, the Puritans as well as the Scottish Presbyterians took this to an extreme as the French never did. In general, where other followers of Calvin eventually devolved into a rigid group focussed on self-denial and discipline, the Huguenots remained moderate, seeking a pleasing but not hedonistic lifestyle as well as maintaining a belief in the individual rather than an domineering church structure. In terms of worship, Calvin was opposed to church ritual which he believed was not advocated in the Bible, and he focused on Christ-based worship as opposed to focussing on the saints or Mary which, to him, seemed superstitious.

However, Calvin's belief in a limited church hierarchy was his most radical viewpoint, resulting in far-reaching political ramifications. During the period preceding the Reformation, the belief of the Roman Catholic Church was that it is through one's participation in the church and its rituals and sacraments that salvation is achieved. In contrast, as stated earlier, both Calvin and Luther believed that it is the individual's relationship with God that is primary. Therefore, if the individual is most important, then the church hierarchy is unnecessary (and un-Biblical). Calvin believed that the Church is not a structure but a community of believers, and each individual community or congregation should be responsible for its own religious experience. While Calvin believed in an organization of congregations (as did both the French Huguenot congregations as well as the Presbyterians), the Puritans -- who eventually became the Congregationalists -- believed in the autonomy of each congregation.) The difficulty this type of structure presented is that both before and long after Calvin's time, in many areas the church was synonymous with the state, and if you questioned the supremacy of the church, you also questioned the supremacy of the king. This was particularly true in France, where the king had wrested from Rome the authority to make church appointments. In effect, the Protestant Reformation seriously jeopardized the political stability of Europe, a stability which was not so stable anyhow. It is primarily for this reason that the Huguenots were persecuted in their own country. (This is not to say that Calvinists advocated the complete separation of church and state, as all Europeans of the time were culturally-conditioned to see them as inextricably linked.)

It is important to note that Protestants were not the only group that found fault with the Catholic Church. The new-found focus on education and devoutness affected Catholics themselves who were advocating changes in the Church; however, they wanted to make the changes from within rather than completely breaking away. For example, most priests were neither literate or even well-trained - hardly the recipe for good leadership. In modern terms, during the Reformation, Catholics who wanted to maintain the status quo can be viewed as conservative, Catholics advocating change liberals, and Protestants radicals, although the Huguenots were not as radical as some. In terms of their political viewpoints, the Huguenots did not advocate the dissolution of a central, royal government, but they did withhold the right to oppose actions of the king which they deemed to be tyrannical or unlawful.

Strife in France - Huguenots versus Catholics

While it is true that for the most part the French Protestants were a serious, devout group who were struggling for their spiritual growth (and this can probably be particularly said about the founders of New Paltz who literally risked their lives to come to a new land in order to follow their beliefs), there were those who chose to convert for opportunistic reasons. In the 16th century, the king was just beginning to take control of the state from the local nobility and form a strong centralized government dependent on him alone. Obviously, this would result in the nobility losing power, but if the nobles chose to follow the Protestant angle of local control above the dominance of the Catholic king, they could retain greater autonomy. Quite a few nobles chose to convert, and although it is likely that many were spiritually-motivated, the result was a power struggle between rival political factions, with many of the common people paying the price.

During the last four decades of the 16th century, France entered a period of religious wars between the two sides. While primarily spurred by political antagonism between the royal and various noble houses, the violence that ensued -- particularly in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572 where some 8000 to 11000 Huguenots were killed -- enflamed both Catholics and Huguenots of the common class to such an extent that they perpetrated violence against each other throughout the country. As Lavender states in his history of the Huguenots, "However, as early as 1562, the minority, whether Catholic or Protestant, often lived in fear for their lives" (in some regions, particularly in the South and up through the mid-Atlantic coast in and around La Rochelle, Huguenots were in the majority, although overall, they were only 20 to 30% of the population of the country). In fact, however, this was not entirely an interdenominational conflict, as some moderate Catholics who were appalled at the actions of the nobility chose to support endangered Huguenots. During this period, a trickle of Huguenot refugees to other safe countries began which continued throughout the 17th century.

In an attempt to resolve the conflict, in 1598 King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes which provided for toleration of the Huguenots. Henry IV, who was also King of Navarre, had become heir to the French thrown when he married Margaret de Valois, the daughter of King Henry II and Queen Catherine de Medici, as well as the sister of Kings Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. Henry was a Huguenot, but in order to become king, it was necessary for him to become a Catholic, and tradition has it that he said he was willing to do so because "Paris was worth the Mass." The Edict which Henry issued did not put the Protestants on equal footing with the Catholics, but they were allowed to worship in existing houses of worship in some 200 hundred cities (not including Paris), they were granted general civil rights, and they were allowed the right to protect themselves by force of arms. Although the Huguenots would never be satisfied with these limited rights, this act inspired many to become supporters of the crown. However, since the Edict only provided for tolerance, as political documents are never able to ensure acceptance, fear and hatred of Protestants continued to exist, no less so than with the son and grandson of Henry IV, Louis XIII (reigned 1610-1643) and Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715). Over the course of the 17th century, the rights of worship and defense were slowly whittled away by the kings. Examples of the persecution were the prohibition of legal weddings in the Huguenot church, as well as holding public office and participation in certain professions, and even, beginning in 1665, the removal of Huguenot children from their families to be raised as Catholics. In 1685, Louis XIV officially revoked the Edict, making Protestantism illegal in France, requiring that all Huguenots convert to Catholicism, leave the country or be sent to ship galleys as slaves.

While it is true that Louis XIV yearned for an absolutist government with him at the head, and while and his actions against the Huguenots can never be justified, it is important to understand his perspective. As stated previously, Protestantism was a radical notion. For more than a millennium, the Roman Catholic church had been a basically unified institution. The church and state were never considered to be separate, and it was thought that they were interdependent on one another for social order. And, in fact, it is necessary to remember that another group of Calvinists, the Puritans of England, executed their king, the uncle of Louis XIV, in 1649 when Louis was 11 years old, and Louis' first cousins, the future Charles II and James II of England, took refuge in his court. Although French Protestants may have been far too moderate to ever take such an action in France, one cannot help but theorize that the events in England had a profound formative effect on the young king.

As stated earlier, throughout the 17th century, small groups of Huguenots (including the founders of New Paltz) fled to countries where they would be accepted, principally Holland, England, Switzerland and various German states, but a mass exodus occurred following the revocation of the Edict. Although many French Protestants converted to Catholicism in order to remain where they were, often simply in name only, it is estimated that approximately 200,000 fled the country (approximately 10% of the total Huguenot population at the time). Those who did not leave or convert faced a life of underground religious worship and a life of fear - for example, over 1000 Huguenots were sentenced to the galleys between 1688 and 1715.

The Pioneers - Huguenot Migration to the British Colonies in America

It is estimated that between 3,000 and 15,000 Huguenots emigrated to the British Colonies in America both before and after the revocation. For many, this was a second stop on their journey to find a new home. Many hoped that they would some day return home to France, but the persecution that continued throughout the 18th century until the French Revolution made this an unfulfilled dream. While Huguenots settled throughout the original colonies, the three primary ethnic enclaves were in Boston, Charleston and New York (as well as New Rochelle). These communities were small in comparison with other ethnic groups in the areas (English in Boston and Charleston and Dutch - and later English - in New York), and by the end of the 18th century, the French generally became integrated into the wider population through marriage and adoption of other languages. Additionally, the inability to engage French Huguenot ministers contributed to the acceptance of alternative denominations, (Anglican in Boston and Charleston and Dutch Reformed in New York), which also influenced the disappearance of separate ethnic communities. (It is interesting to note that even when Congregationalist or Presbyterian congregations, both followers of Calvin, were available, Huguenots were apt to switch to Anglicanism when a separate congregation was no longer possible, although this was not the case in New York. Two theories exist to account for this: 1)Congregationalists and Presbyterians were too conservative for the French; and 2)Many of the Huguenots were from the middling class, and some eventually in the upper class, and they chose to align themselves with the more dominant denominations in their communities.) The question remains, however, to what extent the Huguenots merely assimilated into the population as opposed to influencing the development of a growing nation. Many Huguenots became tradesmen and merchants in their communities, and some descendants even leaders, such as Paul Revere and the wealthy merchant Peter Fanueil in Boston, Henry Laurens (signer of the Declaration of Independence) in Charleston and John Jay (the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court) and Alexander Hamilton, both of New York.

A Permanent Home -- The Founding of New Paltz

As stated previously, while the greatest number of Huguenots who left France did so after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, a small number emigrated earlier in the century. The group of Huguenots who eventually founded New Paltz were from the provinces of Artois and Flanders which was historically part of northeastern France, although during the 17th century these war-ravaged lands changed hands several times during the 30-Year's War (1618-1648). In 1648, with the Peace of Westphalia, the French-speaking inhabitants of these provinces, known as Walloons (from the ancient Teutonic word wahl which meant "foreigner"), came under the jurisdiction of Spain as part of the Spanish Netherlands (which was part of the empire of the Hapsburgs of Austria who were connected to the Spanish royal family through marriage). Fleeing the ongoing violence and religious persecution (which would have existed under either French or Spanish control), some Huguenots from this region fled to an area around Mannheim, Germany, known as the Palatinate, or in German Die Pfalz, a Protestant region ruled by a hereditary prince known as the Elector.

The Palatinate was also seriously damaged by the 30-Year's War, and in order to find people to rebuild the area, the Elector welcomed immigrants from war-torn regions, including the Walloons, upon very reasonable terms, particularly allowing them to reemigrate if they chose to without having to pay the usual exit tax, which would allow them to keep all their money and property. During the 1650s through the early 1670s, Walloon families and individuals fled to the Palatinate, and although they apparently lived satisfactory lives there, some chose once again to search for a more acceptable home. Beginning in 1660 and lasting through the mid-1670s, a small number, some of whom were linked through marriage and others who probably were at least acquainted with each other, fled to the new world, eventually settling in and around Kingston, New York. The region was generally inhabited by the Dutch since it was owned by the Netherlands and called New Netherland until ceded to the British in 1664.

Very little is known about the lives of the founders of New Paltz while in Europe. It is assumed that they were people of some means, being that they were all freemen, but whether they were farmers, merchants, or artisans, or a mixture of all three, is unknown. They were a multilingual group, having lived on the borderlands between the French and Dutch languages, and some at least spoke English, and the command of these three languages would serve them very well in multiethnic New York. Based on the fact that New Paltz was the fourth home for many of the founders, it is evident that they were resilient, adventurous and determined to establish a community that fit their needs.

While we know little about the people before they left Germany, likewise it is unclear why their lives in Germany were unacceptable. Possibly they still did not feel safe from political strife and war or possibly they wanted to be able to maintain their religion and culture to a greater extent than was possible in a region inhabited by such diverse ethnic groups. In any event, even upon settling in and around Kingston, they still had not found an acceptable home. Once again, it is unclear why they felt a separate community was necessary, but possibly it was from the desire to maintain greater ethnic independence. Additionally, the prospect of gaining a significant tract of quality land could have urged the original founders to consider creating a new settlement.

On May 26, 1677, twelve Huguenots purchased almost 40,000 acres of land from the Esopus tribe along the Wallkill River and were given a legal grant to the land by Governer Edmund Andros the following September. In the spring of 1678, these Huguenots and their families (with the exception of one -- patentee Antoine Crispell -- who never chose to live in New Paltz) took possession of the land as patentees (meaning they held a legal patent to the land) and settled the town of New Paltz, naming it after Die Pfalz, the region of Germany where they had formerly resided. Although it is unclear what types of homes they originally built, construction of the stone houses was not begun until the 1680s. (Tradition states that they originally built log homes. Although there is no evidence to confirm this, if they did, it was probably not the "log cabin" form, as that form was unknown to the French, Dutch and English. A log form that they would possibly have been familiar with was one in which the posts were set vertically with some distance between which was filled with mud and straw. The whole structure would have then been covered with clapboards.)

Originally house lots were given to each of the patentees while the rest of the property was owned in common. However, in 1703 they declared individual ownership of the land because they realized that the original grant provided that only the patentees owned the land; thus, all of the land would pass to the final surviving patentee and then to his children. Since only a portion of the patent was in use at the time, over the next several decades, additional segments of the land were divided equally amongst the heirs of the original patentees, with the final distribution being in 1772. Such administration of the property of community was entrusted to "The Twelve Men" which included one man descended from each of the twelve patentees. (Tradition calls this group the Duzine, from either the French douzaine or the Dutch dozijn, both meaning dozen. The earliest sources do not refer to the group as such, and it unclear when the title came into usage.) These twelve men would be extremely important throughout the 18th and early 19th century, as they were also given the responsibility to protect the legal boundaries of the patent in court - a responsibility they had to exercise several times. While it is true that the Duzine was a unique governmental body in the colonies, the town of New Paltz was also governed by elected supervisors as early as 1711, although it was not until 1743 that such a governing body was legally mandated by the colonial government. The final border issues were resolved in court in 1806 (although it took until 1812 for final resolution and payment of attorney fees), and "The Twelve Men" existed in a nonfunctioning manner until officially dissolved in 1824.